Throughout history people
have been lifted to unparalleld heights by others who regarded them as heroes.
Within the human psyche there seems to be a need for such regard, something
akin to the need to become subjects of ill-defined deities. Some immediately
come to mind: Thomas Paine, Horatio Nelson, Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther,
Edith Cavell, Irena Sendlerowa, Nelson Mandela, Oliver Cromwell. The list seems
endless, though none enjoy universal acceptance. For instance, the German monk
Martin Luther broke with the Catholic Church and generated a huge following.
Among other issues, he took it to task for the abomination of selling
indulgences. Separation into what became the Lutheran church did not endear him
to the Vatican. Late in life, he was also known to have become strongly
antisemitic. Oliver Cromwell was a
strong military leader as well as political, but is not admired by the Irish
for his genocidal ventures in Ireland. Of course there are countless individual
heroic acts, but those are generally accepted as singular manifestations of
being caring and responsible human beings.
Since the beginning of
the space age, new heroes have appeared on the scene, at least for some, in the
form of astronauts.... the brave souls that dare to venture into space. Some
among astronauts are pleased to wear that crown, but the less egocentric
would prefer the stand taken by
the late Neil Armstrong, the first to set foot on the moon. Armstrong argued
that he was only doing his job, a position easily supported by acknowledgement
that it would not have occurred but for the labors of thousands of scientists,
design and development engineers, technicians, manufacturing and tooling
engineers, craftsmen and assemblers, and the billions of dollars coughed up by
the public. But the aura remained, as shown by how he was honored following his
recent passing at 82 years. Perhaps there is a connection to be drawn from the
naming of the first launch vehicles to carry astronauts into orbit after
mythological heroic figures - Apollo, Atlas, Saturn and Titan.
My interest in this
subject was sparked following the recent publication of a commentary in Space
News by former astronaut Walter Cunningham, in which, as a climate change denier,
he claimed that he and others within the NASA community were winning the “war
against global warming.” The arrogance and irresponsible nature of the
commentary by someone who had had the extreme privilege of viewing this fragile
planet from space during an Apollo mission begs the question of whether opinion
by former astronauts should carry any special weight above that of other
citizens. Then three other recent events, closely related; the fiftieth
anniversary of the first American to orbit Earth by John Glenn, the forty-third
anniversary of the first landing by humans on the moon and a month later the
death of Neil Armstrong, the first to set foot there, prompted the question: Are
astronauts ordinary people? At first glance, poring over the bios of the two
hundred thirty-eight astronauts who have left the profession, one might reach
that conclusion. Married, raising children, golfers, hunters, hikers,
craftsmen, mountain climbers, pilots, cyclists, musicians.... even artists, all
common to middle class America. End of story. Or is it? It might be interesting
to dig a bit deeper. In this young profession that began with John Glenn’s
Earth orbit flight in 1962, twenty percent are no longer alive.
Getting down to basics, what does it take to be an astronaut? It is
someone in excellent physical condition who will carefully and faithfully
follow prescribed directions.....someone who can be depended upon not to panic in a bad or unexpected
situation but immediately attend to it with sensible and sometimes innovative
solutions. As it happens, there is
a vast pool of such experts in various fields, both men and women, where
performance requirements are virtually the same and where enthusiasm about
space exploration runs high.
NASA’s requirements for application to
the Astronaut corps are straightforward: a BS degree in engineering,
bio-engineering, mathematics or the physical sciences; Three years of
progressively advancing experience in the applicant’s chosen field. That
requirement is lessened by one year with a Masters degree and does not apply if
the applicant is a PhD, or if the applicant has 1000 hours of pilot-in-command
experience with commercial or military jet aircraft. The applicant must meet
basic requirements of 20/20 vision, be a citizen of the United States, blood
pressure not over 140/90 and height between 62 and 75 inches. The applicant is
subjected to interviews and medical examination. Success here leads to
selection for the candidate training program, which lasts two years. The best
of the graduates are then selected for the final intense training program, out
of which astronauts are chosen and assigned to missions. After passing military
water survival tests and achieving SCUBA proficiency in preparation for EVA
training, astronaut training includes International Space Station systems, EVA
skills, Robotics skills, Russian Language and Aircraft flight readiness.
It
stands to reason that NASA would have a preference for experienced pilots in
its astronaut complement as they have already demonstrated the high level of
skill needed to follow complex directions and to rapidly assess and take
corrective action when something goes wrong. Following are four interesting
events.
The Apollo flights were
preceded by the Gemini program, a series of eight low Earth orbit flights to
practice rendezvous and docking in space. A two-man crew was orbited in the
Gemini capsule, somewhat larger that the preceding Mercury capsules. Separate
flights orbited unmanned Agena spacecraft which were fitted with a docking interface. On the eighth
flight, crewed by Neil Armstrong and David Scott, the first U.S. docking
operation was performed as planned, joining Gemini to the Agena spacecraft.
Then suddenly the combined spacecraft began to spin. Picture trying to analyze
a situation like this while spinning at ever more rapid speeds. Yet, Armstrong
managed to stabilize the joined craft by activating the reentry control
thrusters on Gemini. It was concluded that a roll thruster on Gemini had
remained open, and confirmed by rapid depletion of thruster propellants. The
mission was terminated and Gemini was returned to Earth in an emergency landing
in the Pacific.
Apollo 13 was crewed by
astronauts James Lovell, John Swigart and Fred Haise. My contention that
astronauts may be ordinary people is buttressed by the fact that this was not
the originally scheduled crew, who were bounced for reasons of lax attitude
toward training, extra marital affairs and exposure to a communicable disease. Fred
Haise was a replacement for Ken Mattingly, who had been exposed to German
Measles seven days before flight. Mattingly played an important role in
subsequent events for this hair-raising flight. Apollo 13 was launched on April
11, 1970. Fifty-six hours into the
lunar flight the oxygen tank on the service module exploded, rendering the
service module useless for providing utilities to the command module. The mission
now was not a landing on the moon but how to get the astronauts safely back to
Earth. With the limited provisions in the command module and lunar modules, it
became an issue not only of a rapid reconstituting of flight mechanics, but of
survival with limited supply of power, food and water, loss of cabin heat, and
application of ingenuity under
extremely stressful conditions. A fine example of how humans can measure
up to tough situations. Heroic? Not unless saving yourself can be termed
heroic. Heroic is landing a disabled passenger aircraft in the Hudson River and
saving its hundreds of passengers.
Apollo
16, the fifth lunar landing mission, carried the second lunar rover, popularly
known as the “moon buggy,” to enable exploration of extended territory. The
rover was a two- passenger, four-wheel electrical drive vehicle built by the
Boeing Company. Early in its use a fender extension broke when astronaut John
Young bumped into it. No fixes were attempted, though astronauts reported dust
covering everything and vehicle performance dropping off. We are in an age when
people don’t fix their own cars anymore. But then again, some do. On Apollo 17
the fender extension broke again when Eugene Cernan accidentally struck it with
a hammer handle. Repairs were attempted by taping the extension in place but it
was lost after about an hour, the astronauts returning covered with moon
dust. Subsequently a fix was made
with a lunar map, duct tape and a pair of clamps from the lunar module, which
worked for the remainder of the mission. In this instance we see both clumsiness and innovation in
play.
Finally,
the Skylab spacecraft that followed the Apollo lunar missions provides a
spectacular example of how astronauts can function to save a mission gone badly
awry. Skylab was an orbital workshop that was
built by using the Saturn V third stage as the basic structure and furnishing
the inside with components to achieve America’s first space station. Skylab was
launched into orbit on May 14, 1973 by a Saturn V that was left over from
cancelled Apollo missions. Not long after liftoff a micrometeoroid shield whose
function was to moderate the temperature inside the spacecraft broke away, In
breaking off it partially deployed one of the spacecraft’s solar panels, which
later in the flight was blown away by retro rocket fire from the second stage
during separation. Once in orbit it was determined that the opposite array was
entangled in debris and wouldn’t deploy. At that point the mission could have
been aborted. A saving aspect was that some power was available from the Apollo
Telescope Mount, attached to Skylab, when its solar arrays successfully
deployed. Engineers took a couple of days to assess whether the spacecraft
could be repaired and finally a three man crew, led by Charles Conrad,
accompanied by Paul Weitz and Joseph Kerwin departed for Skylab with an
assortment of tools and repair material. Arriving at the spacecraft, their
first job was to fashion a shield, known as “the parasol” to take the place of
the missing micrometeroid shield, which lowered the 100 deg F plus temperature
inside the spacecraft to an acceptable level. Next they set about freeing the
stuck solar array, finally getting it to deploy. Though still at lower power
than hoped for, the station was able to complete its mission with two more
visits by astronauts. The total occupied time for Skylab was 171 man-days.
If longevity is on your life
agenda, you might not choose to be an astronaut. Thus far, for American
astronauts, life expectancy turns out to be 52 years. Of two hundred thirty
eight astronauts who have left the profession, forty-seven are deceased. One is
tempted to compare with other professions where life expectancy is low, like
logging, fishing and long distance trucking. An extrapolation (admittedly risky
for so small a sample) reveals that flying to and operating in space is three
to four times worse. Counting four lives lost in T-38 trainer crashes, 21
deaths occurred in the line of duty... seven crewmembers lost in each of the space
shuttle accidents (Columbia and Challenger) and three in the Apollo command
module fire on the Florida launch pad.
Eighteen deaths were from natural causes, of which five were from heart
failure and the rest from different forms of cancer. The remaining eight deaths
were from various causes, including plane crashes, auto, motorcycle and water
ski accidents, one suicide and one death on Mt. Everest. The high rate of
cancer in a group of humans presumably selected for extraordinarily good
physical condition raises the question about whether space exposure has an
influence.
Experience
thus far has shown that women are fully as capable as men in the astronaut
occupation. There is little evidence that in the hands of men, performance is
better. Yet, of the two hundred thirty eight astronauts who have left the
field, only twenty seven were women. Before he became senator, John Glenn
testified before Congress in an attempt to ban women from going into space. He
failed, but what actually developed seems little more than a nod to the other
sex by NASA administrators. It seems also that a course correction is advisable
in selection of future astronaut complements.
Where
do retired astronauts go? They are
still young and most are obliged to find ways to make a living. The following
information is more or less fluid, as occupations may change with changing
opportunities. For example, astronaut Harrison Schmitt, whose single flight was
on Apollo 17, logging 301 hours in space, took employment with NASA until 1975
when he left to run for United States Senator from New Mexico. He served a
single six year term and then
returned to employment in academia, lecturing, consulting and other
pursuits. A geologist, Dr. Schmitt
has recently aligned himself with climate change doubters like Walter
Cunningham.
It
was no surprise to find that over fifty astronauts found employment at companies that do business with the
government. Only a few reached top level. Most were at vice-president,
assistant vice-president, manager or director levels. That reminds one of the
revolving door situation in Washington where staffers and legislators find jobs
as lobbyists due to their insider connections. Twenty astronauts took
employment in academia and a like number got jobs at various government
agencies. Less than ten went into the medical field, where they had apparently
had their original training.
There
seems to be not much desire to enter the political scene on the part of
astronauts. . Besides Harrison Schmitt, only Jack Lousma and John Glenn sought
careers in the United States Senate. Jack Lousma lost his bid to Carl Levin.
John Glenn was elected Senator from Ohio in 1974 and served for four terms,
retiring in 1999. Glenn was one of five senators caught up in the Lincoln
Savings and Loan scandal. His ambitions extended to a try for the presidency
and two tries for a vice-presidency but none were not successful. In 2012 there
are one or two ex-astronauts campaigning for spots in the House of
Representatives.
The
remainder of retired astronauts entered various occupations that included
consulting, lecturing, investing, writing, and start-up businesses. Some, like Buzz
Aldrin and John Young, work as advocates for the space program. A few
immodestly take every opportunity to preserve a strong public image. Others
went in interesting directions: Apollo astronaut Alan Bean became a successful
artist, specializing in space exploration art works. Apollo 15 Astronauts James
Irwin and Charles Duke turned to religion. Duke entered missionary work and
Irwin became an evangelical Minister. Irwin added to his fame by organizing two
expeditions to Mt. Ararat to find Noah’s Ark. In the second attempt Irwin was
injured and had to make the descent on a horse. Scott Parazinski (MD), veteran
of five STS flights, was a mountain climber. On the second try he was the first
astronaut to climb Mt. Everest, reaching the summit on May 20, 2009. Another
astronaut, Karl D. Heinz, was not so fortunate. He died in the attempt when he
contracted pulmonary edema after reaching an altitude of 21,000 feet. The story
of Brian O’Leary is especially interesting. An astronomer and expert on
physical properties of the Martian surface, he was appointed in 1967 to be part
of the first crew for a manned Mars mission. He left NASA a few months later when prospects of
ever getting into space faded. From there he returned to academia, authored
over a hundred papers and several books, and also held positions at the Energy
Department and Science Applications International Corporation. In later years
O’Leary stepped outside the bounds of conventional physics to pursue ideas on
anti-gravity and free energy. He moved his base of operation to Ecuador from
where he conducted workshops and continued to write and lecture. O’Leary died
in 2011.
Two
former astronauts made it big in the corporate world, attaining CEO status with
large companies. Frank Borman, veteran of Gemini missions and the first lunar
orbital flight in Apollo 8, rose
to be CEO of Eastern Airlines.
William Anders, also of Apollo 8, entered government service where he served as
executive secretary of the National Aeronautics and Space Council, followed by
appointment to be first chairman of the Nuclear Regulatory Commission. Upon
leaving government service he spent several years in senior positions at
General Electric and Textron. In 1990 he entered General Dynamics Corporation
as Vice-Chair and a year later became Board Chairman and CEO. Anders presided
over a major reconstitution of the conglomerate assembled in the 1950’s by John
J. Hopkins, including sell-off of major divisions like Convair Ft. Worth and
the Astronautics Division in San Diego. Anders left bitter feelings, when,
after assuring soon-to-be-unemployed workers at the Astronautics Division that
it would not be sold, executed a sale of the division to Lockheed Martin within
months. Anders resigned in 1993.
In
retrospect, it was probably not entirely Anders’ doing. There is some opinion
that he was directed to take these actions by the Department of Defense......
the “Military/Industrial Complex” at work.” Others believe that major
shareholders were in the mood for a shakeup in corporate assets. He was simply following orders. That’s
what astronauts do.
Copyright © 2012
